Financial Ratio Analysis

Financial Ratio Analysis

Financial ratio analysis - relating line items from an organisation's financial statements to assess the organisation's financial status or performance at a point in time; or by indicating a trend over a time series; or by comparison with another similar organisation. Ratios may be calculated slightly differently by different analysts, the important thing is whether the particular ratio makes sense and actually addresses the underlying economic issue of interest (eg short- or long-term solvency, asset management, profitability and market value). Following below (alphabetically) are a descriptions of a number of common financial ratios. And some free downloads!

Accounts payable turnover.  A measure of efficiency or activity. Accounts payable turnover = cost of goods sold / average accounts payable. Accounts payable turnover = credit purchases / average accounts payable.

Accounts Payable period. A specific measure of working capital management. Accounts payable period = (average accounts payable / purchases) x 365.

Accounts receivable turnover. A measure of efficiency or activity. Accounts receivable turnover = credit sales / average accounts receivable.

Acid test. See quick ratio.

Activity ratio. A measure of efficiency or activity. For example, see working capital turnover, inventory turnover, collection period, fixed asset turnover, asset turnover, net asset turnover, receivables turnover and accounts payable turnover. Download our template for some of these activity ratios.

Adjusted accounting measures. See Return on Invested Capital (ROIC), Economic Profit (EP) and Market Value Added (MVA).

Altman Z-Score. Developed by Edward I Altman, the Z-Score is a quick way to assess the solvency of an organisation – it can indicate current and potential financial distress. It uses 5 financial ratios based on 8 variables from the organisation's financial statements. A Z-Score of less than 1.8 indicates a high probability of financial failure. Whereas a Z-Score of greater than 3.0 indicates a low probability of financial distress. Download our template for the Altman Z-Score. Download Predicting Financial Distress of Companies: revisiting the Z-Score and ZETA Models , a paper by Edward I Altman (July, 2000). Download our template for the Z-Score.

Asset turnover. A measure of overall asset management. Asset turnover = sales / assets. Note: This maybe current, non-current or total assets and either beginning, ending or average value.

Cash coverage. A measure of long-term solvency. Cash coverage = (EBIT + depreciation) / interest.

Cash ratio. A measure of short-term solvency or liquidity. Cash ratio = cash / current liabilities. Cash ratio = (cash + marketable securities) / current liabilities.

Collection period. A specific measure of working capital management.Collection period = accounts receivable / (annual sales / 360).

Creditors turnover. See accounts payable turnover.

Current asset turnover. A measure of efficiency or activity.Current asset turnover = sales / average current assets.

Current ratio. A measure of short-term solvency or liquidity.Current ratio = current assets / current liabilities.

Days in cash operating cycle. A measure of efficiency or activity. Days in cash operating cycle = days to collect + days in inventory - days in payables.

Days in inventory. A measure of efficiency or activity.Days in inventory = 365 / inventory turnover.

Days in payables. A measure of efficiency or activity. Days in payables = 365 / accounts payable turnover.

Days sales in inventory. A specific measure of working capital management. Days sales in inventory = 365 / inventory turnover.

Days sales in receivables. A specific measure of working capital management. Days sales in receivables = 365 / receivables turnover.

Days sales outstanding. See days sales in receivables.

Days to collect. A measure of efficiency or activity. Days to collect = 365 / accounts receivable turnover.

Debt to equity ratio. A measure of long-term solvency. Debt to equity ratio = (total assets – shareholders' equity) / shareholders' equity.

Debtors turnover. See receivables turnover.

Discount to growth. For listed companies, a comparative measure of value relative to potential for growth. For example: Establish the ratio of the company's share price to cash flow, compare that with the sustainable growth rate of cash flow per share.

Dividend payout ratio. A measure of cash dividends paid to income. Dividend payout ratio = cash dividends paid / net income.

Dividend retention ratio. See retention ratio.

Dividend yield. Dividend yield = dividend per share / current market price per share. Dividend yield = profit after interest and tax / total dividend.

du Pont analysis. See Return on Equity (ROE) decomposition and Return on Assets (ROA) decomposition. Download our template for calculating the du Pont financial ratios.

Earnings per share. A measure of market value. Earnings per share = net income - preferred stock dividends / weighted average number of shares outstanding.

EBIT. Earnings Before Interest and Taxes.

EBITDA. Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Abnormals.

EBIT margin. A ‘before interest and taxes' measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can commend in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement, production, sales and distribution processes. EBIT margin = EBIT / sales.

EBITDA margin. A ‘before interest, taxes, depreciation and abnormals' measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can commend in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement, production, sales and distribution processes. EBITDA margin = EBITDA / sales.

Economic Profit (EP). A measure of economic value created over time period. EP = invested capital x (ROIC - WACC). Where WACC is the Weighted Average Cost of Capital.

Economic Value Added (EVA). EVA is measure of whether a company is earning better than its cost of capital. EVA is calculated from reported earnings, specific accounting adjustments and after deducting the cost of capital. It is a sophisticated but complex measure requiring specialist expertise. Also see Market Value Added (MVA) and Future Growth Value (FGV). EVA was devised by Stern Stewart & Co.

Equity multiplier. A measure of long-term solvency. Equity multiplier = total assets / shareholders' equity. Equity multiplier = 1 + debt to equity ratio.

Fixed asset turnover.  A measure of efficiency or activity. Fixed asset turnover = sales / average PP&E (net). Fixed asset turnover = sales / net fixed assets.

Future Growth Value (FGV). FGV is a measure of the market's expectation of EVA growth. Also see Economic Value Added (EVA) and Market Value Added (MVA). EVA was devised by Stern Stewart & Co. FGV = MVA - EVA.

Gearing ratios. See debt to equity ratio, cash coverage and total coverage.

Gross profit margin. A measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can commend in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement and production processes. Gross profit margin = (sales – cost of goods sold) / sales.

Historical accounting measures. See profitability ratios, activity ratios, liquidity ratios, capital gearing ratios and shareholders and investors ratios.

Interest rate cover. See cash coverage.

Inventory turnover. A specific measure of working capital management.Inventory turnover = cost of goods sold / inventory. Note: This maybe beginning, ending or average value for inventory.

Investors ratios. See earnings per share, price earnings ratio and dividend yield.

Leverage. This is a measure of gearing, the relative value of the organisation's debt to shareholders' equity. Leverage = assets / shareholders' equity.

Liquidity ratios. See current ratio, quick ratio and no credit period.

Market to book ratio (market to book value of equity). A measure of market value. Market to book ratio = market value per share / book value per share. Market to book ratio = (price per share x number of shares outstanding) / shareholders' equity (book value).

Market Value Added (MVA). MVA is a measure of the difference between the market value of a company and the debt and equity capital invested in the company. Also see Economic Value Added (EVA) and Future Growth Value (FGV). EVA was devised by Stern Stewart & Co. MVA = market value of equity + market value of debt – economic book value.

Net asset turnover. A measure of efficiency or activity. Net asset turnover = sales / (total assets – current liabilities).

Net profit margin. See EBITDA margin.

No credit period. A measure of liquidity. No credit period = (cash + near cash) / average daily cash running costs.

NOPAT margin. ‘after taxes' measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can commend in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement, production, sales and distribution processes. NOPAT margin = net income + interest x (1 – effective tax rate) / sales.

Operating cash flow ratio. A measure of liquidity or leverage. Operating cash flow ratio = cash flow from operations / current liabilities.

Operating profit margin. A measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can commend in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement, production, sales and distribution processes. Operating profit margin = income from operations / sales.

Payout ratio. See dividend payout ratio and retention ratio.

PPE turnover. A measure of the management of long-term assets. PPE turnover = sales / PPE. Where PPE is net fixed assets.

Price earnings ratio. A measure of market value. Price earnings ratio = share price / earnings per share.

Profitability ratios. See Return on Assets, Return on Equity, gross profit margin and EBITDA margin.

Profit margin. A measure of the price premium that the organisation's products or services can command in the marketplace and the efficiency of the organisation's procurement and production processes. Profit margin = net income / sales.

Quick ratio. A measure of short-term solvency or liquidity. Quick ratio = (current assets – inventory) / current liabilities. Quick ratio = (cash + marketable securities + accounts receivable) / current liabilities.

Rate of return. A measure of market value. Rate of return = ((price per share at end of period + dividends received) / price per share at beginning of period) – 1.

Retention ratio. A measure of retained earnings to income. Retention ratio = Addition to retained earnings / net income. Retention ratio = 1 – dividend payout ratio.

Receivables turnover. A specific measure of working capital management. Receivables turnover = sales / accounts receivables.

Return on Assets (ROA). ROA is a measure of performance, it indicates how well (productively) the organisation's assets are being used overall. ROA = net income / assets.

Return on Assets (ROA) decomposition. ROA is affected by net profit and asset turnover. Also see Return on Equity (ROE) decomposition. ROA = net profit margin / asset turnover. ROA = (net income / sales) x (sales / assets).

Return on Equity (ROE). ROE is a measure of performance, it indicates how well (productively) shareholders' funds are being used. ROE = net income / shareholders' equity.

Return on Equity (ROE) decomposition. ROE is affected by how well (productively) the organisation's assets are used and the relative value of shareholders' equity to total assets (leverage). Also see Return on Assets (ROA) decomposition. ROE = return on assets (ROA) x leverage. ROE = (net income / assets) x (assets / shareholders' equity).

Return on Invested Capital (ROIC). ROIC = after tax operating profit / invested capital.

Stock turnover. See inventory turnover.

Sustainable growth rate. A measure of growth potential on consistent gearing levels. Download our template for the sustainable growth rate. Internal sustainable growth rate = ROE x retention ratio. Internal sustainable growth rate = ROE x (1- dividend payout ratio). Sustainable growth rate = ROA x retention ratio / (1 – ROA x retention ratio).

Taffler's Z-Score. Due to proprietary interests the values of C0 to C4 have not been made publicly available. Z = C0 + C1 R1 + C2 R2 + C3 R3 + C4 R4. Where C0 is a constant and C1 to C4 are weightings given to the ratios R1 to R4; and where R1 = profit before tax / current liabilities R2 = current assets/total liabilities R3 =current liabilities / total assets R4 = no credit interval* * Defined as (immediate assets - current liabilities) / (operating costs - depreciation).

Times Interest Earned (TIE). A measure of long-term solvency. TIE (earnings basis) = EBIT / interest. TIE (cash basis) = (cash flow from operations + interest paid + taxes paid) / interest paid.

Tobins Q. Tobins Q = market value / replacement cost of assets. Tobins Q = market value / book value of assets.

Total assets to equity. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total assets to equity = total assets / shareholders' equity.

Total asset turnover. See asset turnover.

Total coverage. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total coverage (cash basis) = (cash flow from operations + interest paid + taxes paid) / total debt service (interest + principal paid).

Total debt ratio. A measure of long-term solvency. Total debt ratio = (total assets – shareholders' equity) / total assets.

Total interest bearing debt to assets. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total interest bearing debt to assets = total interest bearing debt / total assets.

Total interest bearing debt to equity. A measure of long-term solvency. Total interest bearing debt to equity = total interest bearing debt / shareholders' equity.

Total liabilities to assets. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total liabilities to assets = total liabilities / total assets. Note: This maybe beginning, ending or average value for total assets.

Total liabilities to equity. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total liabilities to equity = total liabilities / shareholders' equity. Note: This maybe beginning, ending or average shareholder equity.

Total long term debt to total capital. A measure of long-term debt and solvency. Total long term debt to total capital = total long term debt / (total long term debt + shareholders' equity).

Working capital turnover. A measure of efficiency or activity. Working capital turnover = sales / average (current assets - current liabilities).